Fall of Qing

The End of Imperial System in China

Wuchang Uprising Museum, Wuhan, China

The Fall of Qing was the sum of the past 100 years. It was a slow death from foreign intervention, economic devastation, and a backward government. Which lead to followed by rebellion after rebellion until 1911.

Xinhai Revolution was the final blow that finished off Qing. Which had been a state without legitimacy, power, and economic strength for 50 years.

The Beginning

The beginning of Qing’s fall began with Qianlong and the McCartney Embassy. The stubborn policy of the time unwisely viewed foreigners as barbarians. Rather than the full potential threat they were.

China in that time remained stuck to agricultural ways, and its bureaucracy ignorant of the changes in foreign lands: industrialization, steam, and western expansionism. Even then, it was seen with disinterest.

Embassies coming from foreign lands were seen as delivering tribute, rather than gifts. Rather than the full potential threat they were. The cultural disconnect wasn’t realized until too late.

Elites had grown accustomed that China was civilization itself. There was no need to understand outside nations - a fatal mentality. 

Opium War and Rebellion

States thrive off legitimacy and skill. The Opium Wars single handedly destroyed that. The inability to crack down on opium was seen as incompetence. The Unequal Treaties, foreign refusal to Chinese diplomatic norms,  from the war eroded its legitimacy - emboldening domestic opponent’s defiance. 

Even prior to Qianlong, Qing had been affected by disturbances. But Qing’s defeat in the Opium War opened the flood gates. This lead to the Taiping Rebellion and later the Boxer Rebellion. The last all but destroyed Qing’s reputation, with Beijing and Tianjin being occupied by the 8 Nation Alliance. This increased anti-Manchu and Qing Sentiment. 

Rise of Revolutonaries

Many movements began to spring up. Chief among them were the Revive China Society, Furen Literary Society, Restoration Society, etc.

The Revive China Society was a precursor to the KMT lead by Sun Zhongshan. Some societies were founded overseas by diaspora, others in China. Many had rivalries with each other, which would lead to disputes during the provisional government after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911.

The Communist Party of China did not exist until the 1920s, and played no real role in the overthrow of Qing.

Supporting the Revolution

The Revolutionaries received foreign support in mostly money, but sometimes arms. Both came from the Chinese diaspora and another surprising source: Japan.

Overseas Chinese donated a large amount of money, thanks to the fundraising and activism by Sun Zhongshan in the US, Thailand, and UK.

Sun was the most successful because of this and the personal resources he had available. He and his brother owned land in Hawaii. Some of this land, including a very profitable cattle farm, where sold to personally fund multiple uprisings.

With this support, Sun and others were able to form the Tongmenghui was established in Tokyo - as a successor to the Revive China Society. Rightists in the Japanese government actively funded and armed the movement, believing they could gain control of the opium trade and a monopoly on goods. Japanese even joined the society, such as Miyazaki Toten.

The money was not just used for China. Sun also supported Filipino guerrillas during this time, to use as a potential base to overthrow Qing. Which failed when the Americans defeated Aguinaldo at the end of the Philippine American War.

The Wuchang Uprising

Uprisings were commonplace by 1911 in China. Beginning with the Guangzhou Revolt in 1895, at least 11 had occurred, including the Boxer Rebellion.

Many were quickly put down, often with foreign support. The Qing government at this time had lost control of coordinating much its armies.

In the year of 1911 when the final uprising in Wuchang occurred, 2 alone had happened.  Each was defeated, but each weakened the government’s legitimacy and the economy. Tax revenues fell, and agricultural productivity collapsed. Famine became common in rural counties. 

The Wuchang Uprising was started by a crackdown on revolutionary elements in Hankou and Hanyang. In response, elements of the New Army staged a revolt against Qing. Eventually  capturing the Hanyang Arsenal and Hankou, location of the foreign concessions. 

The uprising took many revolutionaries by surprise. Sun Zhongshan was outside China fundraising. Huang Xing and Song Jiaoren, founders of the KMT were elsewhere, and couldn’t coordinate the uprising. 

In response to the Wuchang Uprising, the Qing government sent Yuan Shikai and the Beiyang Army. The army was able to recapture Hankou and Hanyang. But Yuan Shikai, seeing problems, began to secretly negotiate and side with the rebels. 

Hankou and Hanyang were strategically vital and controlled the north-south transport from Beijing to Guangzhou. Hanyang Arsenal produced much of China’s ammo, guns, and artillery. Both of which gave the rebellion momentum. 

Fall of Qing

Emboldened by the success of the uprisings, other provinces like Hunan and Shanxi revolted against Qing. This soon spread to Shanghai, Guizhou, and Guangdong. It was a chain reaction Qing could no longer control. Guangdong, Sichuan, and Shandong each announced independence. Manchus were routinely massacred during these rebellions.

The rebellion also spread outwards. Outer Mongolia (modern mongolia), Tibet, and Tuva all seceded from the Qing Empire. While revolutionary movements along ethnic lines racked Xinjiang, both the Kazakhs and Uyghurs separated from Qing. 

Yuan Shikai (1859 – 1916)

Unable to control the rebellions, the Qing Court appointed Yuan Shikai Prime Minister. Then attempted to turn Qing into a constitutional monarchy - an effort that was too late. Many provinces by this time were no longer under Qing control. 

By November 1911, anti-Qing forces captured Nanjing, gaining a major boost in legitimacy. It had been the capital of Ming, the last dynasty. 

In December, Sun Zhongshan was elected the first president of the Republic of China. The delegates compromised on a national flag, known as the Five Races Under One Union. Each stripe represents a major ethnic group in the ROC. 

Yuan Shikai, having joined the rebels, pressured Empress Dowager Longyu to demand Puyi’s abdication. In return for the abdication, Puyi would be allowed to retain title and live in the palace with a stipend. The abdication ended 400 years of Manchu rule. 

Aftermath

With the end of Qing, Sun Zhongshan resigned his position, honoring his promise to Yuan Shikai. Which was to resign if the Emperor abdicated. Yuan Shikai then became President. He would later attempt to expand his power, and Sun would attempt a failed revolution to overthrow him. 

Many of the provinces did not support Yuan, and many warlords created their own fiefs. These would plague China for the next 20 years, until Chaing Kaishek’s Northern Expedition destroyed many but the most powerful warlords.

Some remained independent until 1949, when many of the warlords either fled to Taiwan, or were defeated by the Communists, lead by Mao Zedong.

Conclusion

The Fall of Qing was a result of both foreign intervention, and the court’s stubbornness. Years of foreign intervention, drug abuse, and rebellion had led to a devastated nation. And loss of legitimacy of the Qing. Inability to adapt and stubborn outdated mentality lead to its slow down fall. It took China nearly half a century to get its economic power back that it had.